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राज्य-हरण

 

अंतरराष्ट्रीय कानून में विलय, [1], एक राज्य के क्षेत्र पर दूसरे राज्य द्वारा जबरन अधिग्रहण और कानूनी अधिकार का दावा है, जो आमतौर पर क्षेत्र पर सैन्य कब्जे के बाद होता है। [2] वर्तमान अंतर्राष्ट्रीय कानून में, इसे आम तौर पर एक अवैध कार्य माना जाता है। [3] विलय एक एकतरफा कार्य है जहां क्षेत्र को जब्त कर लिया जाता है और एक राज्य द्वारा कब्जा कर लिया जाता है, यह विजय से अलग है, [a] [6] [7] और सेशन से अलग है, जिसमें संधि के माध्यम से क्षेत्र दिया या बेचा जाता है।

यदि सामान्यत: अन्य राज्यों और अंतरराष्ट्रीय संगठनों द्वारा स्वीकृत हो, तो विलय को वैध बनाया जा सकता है, जिससे इसे औपचारिकता प्राप्त होती है [8] [2]

अवैध विलय का मतलब है कि वे राज्य जो इस तरह के कार्यों को करते हैं, वे आमतौर पर इसे विलय शब्द का उपयोग करके अपने कार्यों की विवरण से बचते हैं; इस तरह के अनुबंधों में, जैसे कि इजराइल, मोरक्को और रूस, राज्यों ने अपने कार्यों को इस प्रकार से प्रस्तुत करने में सावधानी बरती है। [9] [10]

  1. ↑ (Latin ad, to, and nexus, joining)
  2. ↑ अ आ Rothwell et al. 2014: "Annexation is distinct from cession. Instead of a State seeking to relinquish territory, annexation occurs when the acquiring State asserts that it now holds the territory. Annexation will usual follow a military occupation of a territory, when the occupying power decides to cement its physical control by asserting legal title. The annexation of territory is essentially the administrative action associated with conquest. Mere conquest alone is not enough, but rather the conquering State must assert it is now sovereign over the territory concerned. For example, the defeat of Germany and Japan in 1945 led to their occupation by the United States and allies for a number of years, but the States themselves were not absorbed by the Allied Powers part of their respective territories. Examples of annexation in contemporary practice are not common, and are generally viewed as illegal."
  3. ↑ Hofmann 2013: "Annexation means the forcible acquisition of territory by one State at the expense of another State. It is one of the principal modes of acquiring territory... in contrast to acquisition a) of terra nullius by means of effective occupation accompanied by the intent to appropriate the territory; b) by cession as a result of a treaty concluded between the States concerned (Treaties), or an act of adjudication, both followed by the effective peaceful transfer of territory; c) by means of prescription defined as the legitimization of a doubtful title to territory by passage of time and presumed acquiescence of the former sovereign; d) by accretion constituting the physical process by which new land is formed close to, or becomes attached to, existing land. Under present international law, annexation no longer constitutes a legally admissible mode of acquisition of territory as it violates the prohibition of the threat or use of force. Therefore annexations must not be recognized as legal."
  4. ↑ Goertz, Gary; Diehl, Paul F.; Balas, Alexandru (2016), "The Development of Territorial Norms and the Norm against Conquest", The Puzzle of Peace, Oxford University Press, आई॰ऍस॰बी॰ऍन॰ 978-0-19-930102-7, डीओआइ:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199301027.001.0001
  5. ↑ Altman, Dan (2020). "The Evolution of Territorial Conquest After 1945 and the Limits of the Territorial Integrity Norm". International Organization (अंग्रेज़ी में). 74 (3): 490–522. S2CID 226467742. आइ॰एस॰एस॰एन॰ 0020-8183. डीओआइ:10.1017/S0020818320000119. मूल से 2022-03-03 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2022-03-04.
  6. ↑ Marcelo G Kohen (2017). "Conquest". प्रकाशित Frauke Lachenmann; Rüdiger Wolfrum (संपा॰). The Law of Armed Conflict and the Use of Force: The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford University Press. पृ॰ 289. आई॰ऍस॰बी॰ऍन॰ 978-0-19-878462-3. Conquest and annexation are not synonymous either. The latter term is used within and outside the context of armed conflicts, to designate a unilateral decision adopted by a State in order to extend its sovereignty over a given territory. In many cases, the effective occupation of a terra nullius was followed by a declaration of annexation, in order to incorporate the territory under the sovereignty of the acquiring State. In the context of armed conflicts, annexation is the case in which the victorious State unilaterally declares that it is henceforth sovereign over the territory having passed under its control as a result of hostilities. This attempt at producing a transfer of sovereignty through the exclusive decision of the victor is not generally recognized as valid, both in classical and in contemporary international law. An example of a case of annexation preceding the adoption of the UN Charter is the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1908. The annexation was not recognized by the major Powers and required a modification of the 1878 Treaty of Berlin which had simply granted Austria-Hungary the right to administer the territory. Another example is the annexation of Ethiopia by Italy in 1936. Examples of purported contemporary annexations are the Golan Heights annexed by Israel in 1980 and Kuwait by Iraq in 1990, both declared null and void by the Security Council, or the incorporation of Crimea and the City of Sebastopol in the Russian Federation.
  7. ↑ Kohen, p.288, refers to clause 101 of the PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE, 1933, April 5th, General List: No. 43.
  8. ↑ “Annexation”।। Encyclopædia Britannica Online। “Unlike cession, whereby territory is given or sold through treaty, annexation is a unilateral act made effective by actual possession and legitimized by general recognition.”
  9. ↑ Korman, S. (1996). The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice. Clarendon Press. पपृ॰ 253–254 (also see note 11). आई॰ऍस॰बी॰ऍन॰ 978-0-19-158380-3. अभिगमन तिथि 2022-03-09. However, in an era which has repudiated the 'right of conquest', the term 'annexation' is discreetly avoided by all states effecting acquisitions of territory by force.
  10. ↑ Boris N. Mamlyuk (6 July 2015). "The Ukraine Crisis, Cold War II, and International Law". The German Law Journal. SSRN 2627417.


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